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Comparison of high definition optical disc formats

Technical details

A Table Comparing the High-definition Optical Media Formats

DVD included for comparison

Mandatory codecs must be supported by the player. Each disc must use one or more of the mandatory codecs.

Blu-ray Disc

HD DVD

CBHD (CH-DVD)

AVCHD

AVCREC

DVD

Muse LD

Laser wavelength

405 nm (blue-violet laser)

650 nm (red laser)

Numerical aperture

0.85

0.65

0.6

Unknown

Storage capacity

(single side)

per layer/maximum

25/50 GB[a]

15/30 GB[a]

1.4/2.6 GB (8 cm DVD),

4.7/8.5 GB (12 cm DVD)

4.7/8.5 GB

30cm, 60 min per side

Maximum

bitrate

Raw data transfer

53.95 Mbit/s

36.55 Mbit/s

18 Mbit/s

11.08 Mbit/s

Unknown

Audio+Video+Subtitles

48.0 Mbit/s

30.24 Mbit/s

Unknown

10.08 Mbit/s

Unknown

Video

40.0 Mbit/s

29.4 Mbit/s

Unknown

9.8 Mbit/s

Unknown

Mandatory video codecs

H.264/MPEG-4 AVC / VC-1 / MPEG-2

China's AVS / H.264/MPEG-4 AVC / VC-1 / MPEG-2

H.264/MPEG-4 AVC

H.264/MPEG-4 AVC

MPEG-2

MPEG-1 / MPEG-2

MUSE

Audio codecs

(maximum data rates shown)

lossy

Dolby Digital

Mandatory

640 kbit/s

Mandatory

504 kbit/s

Mandatory

64-640 kbit/s

Mandatory

448 kbit/s

Unknown

DTS

Mandatory

1.5 Mbit/s

Unknown

N/A

Optional

1.5 Mbit/s

Unknown

Dolby Digital Plus[d]

Optional

1.7 Mbit/s

Mandatory

3.0 Mbit/s

N/A

N/A

Unknown

DTS-HD High Resolution

Optional

6.0 Mbit/s

Optional

3.0 Mbit/s

Unknown

N/A

N/A

N/A

lossless

Linear PCM[h]

Mandatory

Optional

(B Mode)

2 channel PCM

Dolby TrueHD[h]

Optional

18 Mbit/s

Mandatory

18 Mbit/s

N/A

N/A

Unknown

DTS-HD Master Audio[h]

Optional

24.5 Mbit/s

Optional

18 Mbit/s

Unknown

N/A

N/A

N/A

Secondary video decoder (PiP)

Mandatory for Bonus View players[c]

Mandatory

Unknown

Unknown

N/A

N/A

Secondary audio decoder

Mandatory for Bonus View players[c]

Mandatory

Unknown

Unknown

Optional

N/A

Interactivity

BDMV and Blu-ray Disc Java

Standard Content and Advanced Content

CETC

Rudimentary

N/A

Internet support

Mandatory for BD-Live players

Mandatory

Unknown

N/A

Video resolution

(maximum)

19201080

720480 (NTSC)

720576 (PAL)

1125 interlaced lines

1035 lines displayed

Frame rates at maximum resolution

24p, 50/60i[g]

24/25/30p, 50/60i

24p, 50/60i

Unknown

24/25/30p[g] 50/60i

60i

Digital Rights Management

AACS-128bit / BD+ / ROM-Mark

AACS-128bit

AACS-128bit / DKAA

None (Not intended for prerecorded content)

CSS 40-bit

None

Region codes

Three region codes[f]

None

Unknown

None

8 regions (6 commercial)

None

Hardcoating of disc

Mandatory

Optional

Unknown

^ a These maximum storage capacities apply to currently released media as of July 2008. The DVD Forum has approved a triple-layer version of HD DVD that would have a capacity of up to 51 GB, and Hitachi has proposed a modified Blu-ray version that would support a capacity of up to 100 GB. However, neither has yet been mass-produced or released.

^ b All HD DVD players are required to decode the two primary channels (left and right) of any Dolby TrueHD track; however, every Toshiba made stand alone HD DVD player released thus far decodes 5.1 channels of TrueHD.

^ c On November 1, 2007 Secondary video and audio decoder became mandatory for new Blu-ray Disc players when the Bonus View requirement came into effect. However, players introduced to the market before this date can continue to be sold without Bonus View.

^ d There are some differences in the implementation of Dolby Digital Plus (DD+) on the two formats. On Blu-ray Disc, DD+ can only be used to extend a primary Dolby Digital (DD) 5.1 audiotrack. In this method 640 kbit/s is allocated to the primary DD 5.1 audiotrack (which is independently playable on players that do not support DD+), and up to 1 Mbit/s is allocated for the DD+ extension. The DD+ extension is used to replace the rear channels of the DD track with higher fidelity versions, along with adding additional channels for 6.1/7.1 audiotracks. On HD DVD, DD+ is used to encode all channels (up to 7.1), and no legacy DD track is required since all HD DVD players are required to decode DD+.

^ e On PAL DVDs, 24 frame per second content is stored as 50 interlaced frames per second and gets replayed 4% faster. This process can be reversed to retrieve the original 24 frame per second content. On NTSC DVDs, 24 frame per second content is stored as 60 interlaced frames per second using a process called 3:2 pulldown, which if done properly can also be reversed.

^ f As of July 2008, about 66.7% of Blu-ray discs are region free and 33.3% use region codes.

^ g DVD supports any valid MPEG-2 refresh rate as long as it is packaged with metadata converting it to 576i50 or 480i60, This metadata takes the form of REPEAT_FIRST_FIELD instructions embedded in the MPEG-2 stream itself, and is a part of the MPEG-2 standard. HDDVD is the only high-def disk format that can decode 1080p25 and 1080p30 while blu-ray and HDDVD can both decode 1080p24. 1080p25 and 1080p30 content can only be presented on Blu-Ray as 1080i50 and 1080i60 respectfully.

^ h Linear PCM is the only lossless audio codec that is mandatory for both HDDVD and Blu-Ray disk players, only HDDVD players are required to decode two lossless sound formats and those are Linear PCM and Dolby TrueHD. Dolby TrueHD and DTS-HD Master Audio have become sound format of choice for many studios on their Blu-Ray titles but ever since Blu-Ray won the format war, it has not become clear if the they are now Mandatory for all new Blu-Ray disk players since the end of the format war.

Capacity/codecs

Blu-ray has a higher maximum disc capacity than HD DVD (50 GB vs. 30 GB for a double sided disc). In September 2007 the DVD Forum approved a preliminary specification for the triple-layer 51GB HD DVD (ROM only) disc though Toshiba never stated whether it was compatible with existing HD DVD players. In September 2006 TDK announced a prototype Blu-ray Disc with a capacity of 200GB. TDK was also the first to develop a Blu-ray prototype with a capacity of 100GB in May 2005. In October 2007 Hitachi developed a Blu-ray prototype with a capacity of 100GB. Hitachi has stated that current Blu-ray drives would only require a few firmware updates in order to play the disc.

The first 50 GB dual-layer Blu-ray Disc release was the movie Click, which was released on October 10, 2006. As of July 2008, over 95% of Blu-ray movies/games are published on 50 GB dual layer discs with the remainder on 25 GB discs. 85% of HD DVD movies are published on 30 GB dual layer discs, with the remainder on 15 GB discs.

The choice of video compression technology (codec) complicates any comparison of the formats. Blu-ray Disc and HD DVD both support the same three video compression standards: MPEG-2, VC-1 and AVC, each of which exhibits different bitrate/noise-ratio curves, visual impairments/artifacts, and encoder maturity. Initial Blu-ray Disc titles often used MPEG-2 video, which requires the highest average bitrate and thus the most space, to match the picture quality of the other two video codecs. As of July 2008 over 70% of Blu-ray Disc titles have been authored with the newer compression standards: AVC and VC-1. HD DVD titles have used VC-1 and AVC almost exclusively since the format's introduction. Warner Bros., which used to release movies in both formats prior to June 1, 2007, often used the same encode (with VC-1 codec) for both Blu-ray Disc and HD DVD, with identical results. In contrast, Paramount used different encodings: initially MPEG-2 for early Blu-ray Disc releases, VC-1 for early HD DVD releases, and eventually AVC for both formats.

Whilst the two formats support similar audio codecs, their usage varies. Most titles released on the Blu-ray format include Dolby Digital tracks for each language in the region, a DTS-HD Master Audio track for all 20th Century Fox and Sony Pictures and many upcoming Universal titles, Dolby TrueHD for Disney and Sony Pictures and some Paramount and Warner titles, and for many Blu-ray titles a Linear PCM track for the primary language. On the other hand, most titles released on the HD DVD format include Dolby Digital Plus tracks for each language in the region, and some also include a Dolby TrueHD track for the primary language.

Interactivity

Both Blu-ray Disc and HD DVD have two main options for interactivity (on-screen menus, bonus features, etc.).

Blu-ray's basic mode is known as HDMV or BDMV ("High Definition Movie Mode" or "Blu-ray Disc Movie Mode"), whilst HD DVD's is known as "Standard Content". Both offer modest upgrades from standard DVD, such as the use of more buttons on-screen, a larger colour palette, and expanded programming environment. BDMV is more powerful than Standard Content, and has been used on many Blu-ray disc titles. Standard Content has been used less on HD DVDs[citation needed]. HD DVD's Standard Content is a minor change from standard DVD's subpicture technology, while Blu-ray's BDMV is completely new. This makes transitioning from standard DVD to Standard Content HD DVD relatively simple[citation needed] -- for example, Apple's DVD Studio Pro has supported authoring Standard Content since version 4.0.3.[citation needed] For more advanced interactivity Blu-ray disc supports BD-J while HD DVD supports Advanced Content.

Disc construction

Blu-ray Discs contain their data relatively close to the surface (less than 0.1 mm) which combined with the smaller spot size presents a problem when the surface is scratched as data would be destroyed. To overcome this, TDK, Sony, and Panasonic each have developed a proprietary scratch resistant surface coating. TDK trademarked theirs as Durabis, which has withstood direct abrasion by steel wool and marring with markers in tests.

HD DVD uses traditional material and has the same scratch and surface characteristics of a regular DVD. The data is at the same depth (0.6 mm) as DVD as to minimize damage from scratching. As with DVD the construction of the HD DVD disc allows for a second side of either HD DVD or DVD.

A study performed by Home Media Magazine (August 5, 2007) concluded that HD DVD discs and Blu-ray discs are essentially equal in production cost. Quotes from several disc manufacturers for 25,000 units of HD DVDs and Blu-rays revealed a price differential of only 5-10 cents. (Lowest price: 90 cents versus 100 cents. Highest price: $1.45 versus $1.50.) Another study performed by Wesley Tech (February 9, 2007) arrived at a similar conclusion. Quotes for 10,000 discs show that a 15 gigabyte HD DVD costs $11,500 total, and 25 gigabyte Blu-ray or a 30 gigabyte HD DVD costs $13,000 total. For larger quantities of 100,000 units, the 30 gigabyte HD DVD was more expensive than the 25 gigabyte Blu-ray ($1.55 versus $1.49).

Hybrid discs

At the January 8, 2007 Consumer Electronics Show, Warner Bros. introduced a hybrid technology, Total HD, that would reportedly support both formats on a single disc.The new discs would overlay the Blu-ray and HD DVD layers, placing them respectively 0.1 mm and 0.5 mm beneath the surface. The Blu-ray top layer would act as a two-way mirror, reflecting just enough light for a Blu-ray reader to read and an HD DVD player to ignore. But the following September, Warner President Ron Sanders said that the technology was on hold due to Warner being the only one that would publish on it.

As of January 4, 2008, Warner Bros. announced that they will be supporting the Blu-ray format exclusively after June 1, 2008. This news along with the end of the format war would indicate that the hybrid discs once announced by Warner Bros. will not be put into production.

Copy protection

The primary copy protection system used on both formats is the Advanced Access Content System (AACS). Other copy protection systems include:

Blu-ray Disc

HD DVD

HDCP encrypted digital output

ROM-Mark watermarking technology (physical layer)

BD dynamic crypto (BD+)

HDCP encrypted digital output

Region coding

Main article: Blu-ray Disc - Region codes

The Blu-ray specification and all currently available players support region coding. As of July 2008 about 66.7% of Blu-ray Disc titles are region-free and 33.3% use region codes.

The HD DVD specification has no region coding, so an HD DVD disc from anywhere in the world will work in any player. The DVD Forum's steering committee has discussed a request from Disney to add it, but many of the 20 companies on the committee actively oppose it..

Some film titles that are exclusive to Blu-ray in the United States such as Sony's xXx, Fox's Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer and Disney's The Prestige, are available on HD DVD in other countries due to different distribution agreements (in fact, The Prestige was released outside the US by once format-neutral studio Warner Bros. Pictures). Since there is no region coding in HD DVDs, there are no restrictions playing foreign-bought HD DVDs in an HD DVD player.

References

^ "Toshiba Announces Discontinuation of HD DVD Businesses". Toshiba Press Department. 2008-02-19. http://www.toshiba.co.jp/about/press/2008_02/pr1903.htm. Retrieved 2008-02-19. 

^ http://www.blu-raydisc.com/Assets/Downloadablefile/2b_bdrom_audiovisualapplication_0305-12955-15269.pdf

^ HD DVD Promotion Group

^ DVD Forum.org HD DVD Technology

^ a b c d e "Blu-ray Disc Statistics". http://www.blu-raystats.com/Stats/Stats.php. Retrieved 2008-07-04. 

^ "TDK Develops Blu-ray Media with 200GB Capacity". http://www.blu-ray.com/news/?id=94. 

^ "Develops 2X, 100GB Blu-ray Disc Prototype". http://www.blu-ray.com/news/?id=46TDK. 

^ "Hitachi Develops BD-100". http://www.blu-ray.com/news/?id=559. 

^ Frequently updated list of historical release dates and disc capacities, HD DVD NEWS, High-Def Digest, 15 April 2007

^ HD DVD Statistics, HDDVDstats.com, 15 January 2008

^ "Durabis durability". http://www.engadget.com/2007/01/19/tdks-durabis-2-coating-protects-200gb-blu-ray-discs/. 

^ "Indies wait for HD - Page 1 - lists bulk prices for blank discs". http://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/questex/hom080507/index.php. 

^ "Blu-ray vs HD DVD replication costs analyzed again - Lists 10,000-quantity prices for blank discs". http://wesleytech.com/blu-ray-vs-hd-dvd-replication-costs-analyzed-again/113/. 

^ "Blu-ray replication vs HD DVD replication costs revealed - Lists 100,000-quantity prices for blank discs". http://wesleytech.com/blu-ray-vs-hd-dvd-replication-costs-revealed/111/. 

^ Shilov, Anton (2007-01-04). "Warner Total HD to End Blu-ray Vs. HD DVD War". X-bit labs. http://www.xbitlabs.com/news/multimedia/display/20070104060353.html. Retrieved 2007-01-04. 

^ "Warner Remains Loyal To Dual HD Formats". TWICE. 2007-09-12. http://www.twice.com/article/CA6477849.html. Retrieved 2008-04-25. 

^ "Microsoft: why HD DVD can beat Blu-ray". 2007-04-03. http://www.tech.co.uk/home-entertainment/video/dvd-hdd-players-and-receivers/blu-ray-and-hd-dvd/features/microsoft-why-hd-dvd-can-beat-blu-ray. Retrieved 2007-11-13. 

^ Sarah McBride (2007-10-18). "Blu-ray vs. HD DVD: a Solution Abroad". Wall Street Journal online. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB119267051987662923.html?mod=googlenews_wsj. Retrieved 2007-11-15. 

External links

Blu-ray portal

Blu-ray vs. HD DVD article by cdfreaks.com

v  d  e

High definition media

Media formats

Blu-ray Disc   HD DVD   China Blue High-Definition (CBHD)   Holographic Versatile Disc   UMD

Promoter

Blu-ray Disc Association  HD DVD Promotion Group   HVD Forum   Sony(UMD)   China High-definition DVD Industry Association

Interactivity

BD-Java  Advanced Content

Recordable formats

BD-R  BD-RE  HD DVD-R  HD DVD-RW  HD DVD-RAM

Comparison

Comparison of high definition optical disc formats

copy prevention

AACS (BD, FVD, and HD DVD)  HDCP (BD and HD DVD)  BD+ (BD)  ROM-Mark (BD)

Blu-ray Disc players

PlayStation 3  Sony BDP-S1  Panasonic DMP-BD10

HD DVD players

Xbox 360 HD DVD Drive  Toshiba HD-A1  Toshiba HD-XA1

Categories: Blu-ray Disc | HD DVD | High-definition television | Video storage | Technological comparisonHidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from August 2008 | Articles with unsourced statements from January 2007 | Articles with unsourced statements from December 2007
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OPTICS TODAY- AN OVERVIEW

OPTICS TODAY- AN OVERVIEW

By- Dr. Ratnam Challa

 

"Optics, as a field of science, is well into it's second millennium of life; yet in spite of its age, it remains remarkably vigorous and youthful"

J.W.GOODMAN ,(1984).

INTRODUCTION

Optics is an enabling science and is an important component of modern, high technological , societies and economies. According to the Australian Optical Society Report , March, 1994, " Both in research and industry, optics is a major growth area of modern science and technology that shows no signs of abating in the foreseeable future". "Prediction is very difficult", said NIELS BOHR, "especially about the future". Two decades ago optical computing was a thriving area of research that offered the prospect of computers much faster than those available at the time. Of course, computers are indeed much faster today than they were 20 years ago, but they are still not optical. However, there have been more than enough developments in other areas of optics, both pure and applied, over this period to compensate for that particular disappointment. Some of these advances were planned or predicted, but many were completely unexpected (PETER RODGERS, Physics world' Editor, April 2005)

Optics is one of the growth areas of modern physics and engineering. As a result, optics finds applications in almost every walk of life in our society. Optical devices are crucial components in many sectors of industry. The development of our modern technological lifestyle is becoming increasingly linked to developments in the field of optics. This encompasses areas that are well known in traditionaloptics:

• optical materials (glasses, crystals, thin film technology)
• optical components (lenses, mirrors, gratings),
• photometry (light measurement, colour definition)
• vision
• solar collectors and concentrators
• Optical systems (cameras, telescopes, microscopes, photocopiers etc.)
• lighting and display systems
• eye-wear

Conventional optical components are already present in many devices and instruments, which are in everyday use in our society.

The ability to measure, and to compute with speed and accuracy are the hallmark requirements of today's physical and exact sciences. Since its introduction in the late 1950's, the digital computer has furthered the computational abilities of man beyond the wildest dreams. Today computer is used in almost every field of research in optics, not to say less about any other field.  The fields of optics that have particularly profited from the use of computers are 1) Lens design and Thin Film design  2) Image Processing and Evaluation 3) Atmospheric Optics 4) Space Optics 5) Remote Sensing and in more recent times  6) Medical Optics.

IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH IN MODERN OPTICS

There is a considerable quality, breadth and depth in optics research, and in the industrial applications of research in optics. For any country Optics is an appropriate industry in terms of its contribution to wealth generation and employment and its low environmental impact (AUSTRALIAN OPTICAL SOCIETY REPORT, March, 1994).

The new fields of Modern Optics encompass growing areas which are at the forefront of current scientific research, such as Lasers, Fibre optics, Photonics, Optical Computing , Atom Optics, Fourier Optics etc. More importantly, the applications of modern optics increasingly underpin our social and economic well being, and are an important component of modern, high technology industry. Examples include:

• lasers in medicine (cancer surgery, laser angioplasty, eye surgery)
• optical communications (mass information transfer, optical switching)
• imaging and sensing (bar code readers, laser alignment tools)
• optical data storage (compact discs, digital cameras)
• precision measurement (laser rangers and gyroscopes, interferometers)
• holography (data storage, structural testing, security devices)
• materials processing (laser annealing, drilling and cutting)

History of Development of Modern Optics

Since the early 1960`s, it has gradually become accepted that a modern academic training in optics should include a heavy exposure to the concepts of Fourier Analysis and Linear systems theory. During the middle of the 20thcentury, various events and discoveries have given new life, energy and richness to the field of optics. The most important events have been

(1)        The introduction of the concepts and tools of Fourier Analysis and communication theory into optics (1940-1960).

(2)        The discovery and successful realization of the LASER in the late 1950 `s.

(3)        The origin of the field of non –linear optics in 1960`s.

(4)         The infusion of statistical concepts and methods of analysis into the field of optics.

(5)        Computers have further accelerated the pace of development in the field of optics throughout the entire century.

A realization of the utility of Fourier methods in the analysis of optical systems arose rather spontaneously in the late 1930's when a number of research workers began to advocate the use of sinusoidal test patterns for system evaluation. Much of the initial stimulus was supplied by a French scientist P.M.DUFFIEUX, whose work culminated in the publication of a book, in 1946, on the use of Fourier methods in optics. Unfortunately this book has never been translated into English and is not widely available. In the United States, much of the interest in these topics was stimulated by an electrical engineer named OTTO SCHADE, who very successfully employed the methods of linear systems theory and communication theory in the analysis and improvement of television camera lenses. However the foundations of Fourier optics were in fact laid considerably earlier than 1940, particularly in the works of Ernst Abbe (1840-1905) and Lord Rayleigh (1842- 1919)  (GOODMAN, 1968)

In the late 19th century LORD RAYLEIGH had solved many fundamental problems in acoustics and optics. The discovery of the quantized nature of light had dramatically increased the need for statistical interpretation of Quantum Mechanics in optics, which was first introduced by MAX BORN (GOODMAN 1984). In 1954 EMIL WOLF introduced an elegant and broad framework for considering the coherence properties of waves, which laid foundation for several important statistical problems in 0ptics that could be treated in a uniform way. An event of special mention is the classical theory of light detection pioneered by L.MANDEL which tied together in a comparatively simple way, the knowledge of the fluctuations of classical wave quantities (fields, intensities) and fluctuations associated with the interaction of light and matter.

A student level course in Physics, today, encounters optics in an entirely deterministic framework. Physical quantities are represented by mathematical functions that are either completely specified in advance or assumed to be precisely measurable. These physical quantities are subjected to well-defined transformations that modify their form in perfectly predictable manner. For example, the path of a monochromatic light wave with a known complex field distribution at a certain distance away from the screen can be calculated precisely by using the well-established diffraction formulae of wave optics.

Thirty years ago, the enormous impact of lasers on modern optics and technology could not have been predicted. Even now, the full range of possible applications afforded by lasers has yet to be realized. There are also signs that other fields in modern optics, for example atom optics (where atoms are controlled with light in the same way as "conventional" optics controls light with matter) offer similar potential for new technological applications. Optics is no longer an isolated branch of physics. There is a great deal of transformation in the study of Optics over the decades with the use of computers. Optics has developed to its present status by borrowing mathematical concepts from diverse fields such as communication engineering, electronics, nuclear physics, etc. It is the wave nature of light that makes this link possible.

CURRENT  RESEARCH  AREAS  IN  OPTICS:

University research in optics is spread across applied and fundamental areas. These activities have been coarsely classified into areas and are briefly described below.

(a) Optical  Fibres  and Photonics

One of the major advances in this technology is the development of facilities for the design, fabrication and testing of specific optical fibres. This activity includes the research and development of next generation components and devices including optical switches, fibre lasers and fibre amplifiers. These devices are of importance to the advancement of photonics. Photonic devices and circuits are being developed for application to very high bit rate optical communication systems and networks including local and metropolitan area networks for delivery of pay television etc. Other research is being undertaken into nonlinear optical materials and devices with applications to all optical switching. This work is at the leading edge of technology for the future.

(b) Lasers and Applications

Lasers ranging from semiconductor, solid state and CO2 systems operating in the infrared- to- metal vapour regions and rare gas lasers operating in the visible and ultra violet are being researched and developed. The application of laser technology is prevalent, particularly in non-destructive testing and diagnostics, high precision machining of polymers using ultraviolet lasers. The study of man-made plasmas and hypersonic gas flows using laser diagnostics, medical diagnostics employing lasers, and holography are just some of the research topics undertaken in universities in which laser technology is directly applied.

(c) Conventional Optics

The field of conventional optics plays a role of ever increasing importance. Diverse activities such as microscopy, imaging, optometry, solar collectors and astronomy are ongoing activities in various research institutes across the world. A wide variety of specialist microscopes are currently under development in a number of active research groups which are likely to be in departments of physiology and anatomy as well as in departments of physics. Many hospitals are also very active as there is promise, using advanced imaging techniques, for developing methods for the early detection of diseases such as glaucoma.  Astronomy is also dependent on high quality optics as highlighted by the custom precision optics, lasers and quantum imaging devices used by the Sydney University Stellar Interferometer. The development of suitable optical components is essential to the advancement of solar energy technology that has the potential to deliver cheap and efficient electricity and also to become an export earner. (AUSTRALIAN OPTICAL SOCIETY REPORT, March, 1994).

(d) Vision:

The study of vision spans scientific disciplines from mathematics to physiology. Understanding the processes of pattern recognition and visual processing will have implications in problems associated with machine vision such as range sensing and measurement of optic flow. There is growing research interest and activity in this area, which is evolving as an important component in high technology industry across the world.

(e) Atomic and Molecular Physics and Quantum Optics

This predominately fundamental area of research is important to optics in two ways. Firstly, most modern methods of investigating processes in atomic and molecular physics involve the use of state of the art lasers together with high quality optics. Secondly, major advances in modern optics have emanated from this area. For example, the discovery of optical bistability in atomic sodium was the precursor to the field of photonics. Atomic physics gave the world the laser and more recently, squeezed states. The list can be continued. Research in atomic and molecular physics and quantum optics is an area of strength in institutes of advanced research.

(f) Particle and Atom Optics.

Over the last ten years there has been explosive growth of worldwide interest in the optics of massive particles such as atoms and neutrons.

(g) X-ray Optics.

This area is of considerable importance as it not only assists fundamental studies in materials science and astronomy but also underpins the areas of medical imaging. Many of the experimental techniques in x-ray optics, although common in principle with other areas of optics, present a unique set of challenges.

(h) FOURIER OPTICS

JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH FOURIER (March 21, 1768 – May 16, 1830) was a French mathematician and physicist who is best known for initiating the investigation of Fourier series and their applications to problems of heat flow. The Fourier Transform is named in his honor.  The mathematical technique of Fourier transforms in association with correlation and convolution, when applied to optics resulted in the subject of Fourier transform optics or Fourier Optics, which is an important branch of Modern Optics. The foundation to Fourier Optics was laid in the works of Ernest Abbe and Lord Rayleigh (GOODMAN, 1988) and Michelson (STEWARD, 1983).

The importance and the art of the Fourier transform in optics was briefly but beautifully summarized by FRANCON (1974). According to him the wave aspect of light is the fundamental reason for the important role played by Fourier transform in the field of optics. In fact, the Fourier transform comes in as a natural tool for representation of all vibrational phenomena in physics. It translates the principle of Huygens and enables the study of diffraction phenomena. It translates the formation of images of extended objects and brings in the notion of transfer function. It describes the degree of spatial coherence in terms of source geometry and further more, the degree of temporal coherence in terms of source spectrum. It plays a fundamental role in spatial filtering, character recognition and image processing. Finally, in the domain of Interference spectroscopy, it relates the intensity distribution in the source to the spectral distribution of source energy. Thus, the use of Fourier analysis, justified by the wave aspects of light, presents for optics, the possibilities which are far from having being exhausted (LAKSHMANA  RAO, 1994).

The statistical properties of light play an important role in determining the outcome of most optical experiments. A description in terms of certain second order averages known as coherence functions is entirely adequate for predicting experimental outcomes. The origins of the modern concept of coherence can be found in the scientific literature of the 19th and early 20thcenturies. Particularly noteworthy early contributions were made by E.VERDET (1865),  M.VON LAUE (1906), (1907), (1907), (1909), (1910), (1915), (1915); M.BEREK, (1926), (1927); P.H.VANCITTERT ,(1934), (1939); F.ZERNIKE  (1938), (1948) and others. The next developments of major importance are found in the work of H.H.HOPKINS (1951), A.BLANC-LAPIERRE and DUMONTET (1954), E.WOLF (1953), (1954), (1954). The historical evolution of concept of coherence is presented with an extensive bibliography by L.MANDEL and E.WOLF (1970)

"Emil Wolf is a living legend in the field of physical optics. An icon in the world of optics, Emil Wolf laid the foundations of contemporary physical optics by documenting the concept of spatial coherence before lasers were introduced. This powerful concept has influenced many areas of optical science and engineering", (Tribute to Emil Wolf: Science and Engineering Legacy of Physical Optics, Editor(s): TOMASZ P.JANNSON Publication Date: Dec 2004).

(i)         MEDICAL IMAGING

Since its conception, the medical field has been searching for better ways to understand the human body. Today, the optical field is finding new ways to assist in this process. One of those ways is through electromagnetic radiation imaging. On the cutting edge of this field is the g- ray coded aperture imaging.

What is Coded Aperture Imaging?

The coded aperture imaging is an indirect method of imaging in which the conventional pinhole or multi-channel collimator is replaced by a plate containing a coded hole pattern or opening. A point gamma ray source will cast a shadow of this hole pattern on a detector and this shadow is the coded image of the point source , which may also be called the point-spread function of the coded aperture. A source distribution (two-dimensional or three-dimensional) is encoded as a superposition of many such shadows. This encoded pattern on the detector plane is called the shadowgram of the object distribution of intensity. The design of the coded aperture is chosen to facilitate the image reconstruction or decoding process in order to ensure a faithful reproduction of the object or the source distribution on the image plane. The decoding can be accomplished by a number of methods- both optically and electronically.

Coded Aperture Imaging is a technique originally developed for X-ray astronomy by MERTZ  (1961) and YOUNG (1963) where typical imaging problems are characterized by far-field geometry and an object made of point sources distributed over a mainly dark background. These conditions provide, respectively, the basis of artifact-free and high Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) imaging. In a report titled "Computer aided Zone Plate 3-D Imaging: Theory, Software and Implementation" sponsored by Laser Plasma Division, Centre for Advanced Technology, Department of Atomic Energy, Govt. of India, (June, 2003), the authors G.S.SOLANKI and H.C.PANT have reported that Coded Imaging (CI) Techniques are being much preferred to conventional Imaging Techniques especially for imaging sources of  short wavelength radiations.  The CI Techniques have made significant contribution in the following fields:

a)      X-ray Astronomy: [ Diek (1968);Young(1963)]

b)      Nuclear medicine: [Barrett (1972); Barrett et al(1973); Rogers et al (1973)]

c)      Nuclear engineering [Rose et al (1975), Rose (1976)]

d)     Inertial Confinement Fusion [Ceglio and Coleman (1977), Ceglio and Larson (1980); Bruno et al (1979)]

Prof. H.H.BARRETT, who is at present Regents Professor in Optical Sciences Centre in the University of Arizona, U.S.A, has contributed an enormous wealth to field of Coded Aperture Imaging Technique and has a large number of U.S. Patents to his credit. He has a huge team of researchers who have themselves published very useful work in this field of research.

(j)        Holography

Holography is a technique that allows the light scattered from an object to be recorded and later reconstructed so that it appears as if the object is in the same position relative to the recording medium as it was when recorded. The image changes as the position and orientation of the viewing system changes in exactly the same way as if the object were still present, thus making the recorded image (hologram) appear Three-Dimensional. The technique of holography can also be used to optically store, retrieve, and process information.

Holographic data storage is a technique that can store information at high density inside crystals or photopolymers. The ability to store large amounts of information in some kind of media is of great importance, as many electronic products incorporate storage devices. As current storage techniques such as Blue- Ray Disc reach the limit of possible data density (due to the diffraction-limited size of the writing beams), holographic storage has the potential to become the next generation of popular storage media. The advantage of this type of data storage is that the volume of the recording media is used instead of just the surface. In 2005, companies such as Opt ware and Maxell have produced a 120 mm disc that uses a holographic layer to store data to a potential 3.9 TB (terabyte), which they plan to market under the name Holographic Versatile Disc. Another company, In Phase Technologies, is developing a competing format.

Security holograms are very difficult to forge because they are replicated from a master hologram which requires expensive, specialized and technologically advanced equipment. They are used widely in many currencies such as the Brazilian Real 20 note, British Pound 5/10/20 notes, Estonian Croon 25/50/100/500 notes, Canadian Dollar 5/10/20/50/100 notes, Euro 5/10/20/50/100/200/500 notes, South Korean Won 5000/10000/50000 notes, Japanese Yen 5000/10000 notes, etc. They are also used in credit and bank cards as well as Passports, ID cards, books, DVDs and sports equipment.

This is only a brief exposition on the ever growing importance of optics in the various fields of life. The world of optics is far reaching and a thorough study is beyond the scope of this article. However, anyone interested in a career in Optics can definitely get an idea of this ever growing branch of Physics.

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References:-

AUSTRALIAN  OPTICAL SOCIETY REPORT, (March, 1994).

BARRETT, H. H., STONER,W.W.,WILSON,D.T ., DE MEESTER,G.D.,(1974),

Optical Engineering.,13, no.6,  539

BARRETT, H. H., WILSON,D.T.,and DE MEESTER,G.D.,(1972), Opt.commun., 5, 398

BARRETT, H.H and DE MEESTER,G.D.,(1974), Appl.Opt.,13, no.5, 1100

BARRETT, H.H and HORRIGAN,F.A.,(1973), Appl.Opt., 12,2686

BARRETT, H.H, (1972),  Proc.IEEE 60,723

BORN and WOLF, (1959), "Principles of Optics", 1st edition, p.394,397.,

Pergamon  Press, N.Y                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   BORN and WOLF, (1965), "Principles of Optics",  p.396,397,441,

Pergamon Press, Oxford

BORN, M. and WOLF,E., (1984), In "Principles of optics", (Pergamon Press, Oxford,   SixthEdition), p.524, 441, 435. 440, 526, 522, 881.

BORN, M and WOLF,E.(1970) , "Principles of Optics"

(Pergamon Press,G.B. )4th Ed.,p.333,396,398,424,436,438,462,469&524.

CEGLIO, N.M., and SWEENEY,D.W., (1984), in "Zone plate coded imaging; theory and  applications",  in Progress in Optics- XXI, Ed. By E.WOLF, Pub. by Elsevier  Science publishers, B.V., 1984

DICKE, R.H., (Aug 1968),Scatter-Hole cameras for X-ray and Gamma-rays,  Astrophysical J.,vol.153, L101

FRANCON,  M., (1974),  J.Opt. Soc. Am., 64, p.519. (Abstract)

GHATAK, A.K., THYAGARAJAN,K.(1984), "Contemporary Optics", (MacMillan  India,Ltd.)p.17.

GOODMAN, J. W., (1984), In "Statistical Optics". (John Wiley & Sons, New York). P.1

GOODMAN, J.W., (1988), In "Introduction of Fourier Optics", Re-Issue, (Mcgraw-Hill  Publ.co., New York), p.1,101, 103, 19, 17, 131

GOODMAN, J.W.(1968) "Introduction to Fourier Optics"(McGraw- Hill,USA)  P.1,17,83,101,103,139&148.

LAKSHMANA  RAO, V.,(1994), Ph.D Thesis: "Studies on Resolution of two unequally

bright object points by apodised annular optical systems in partially  coherent illumination"

RATNAM, C.,(2006), Ph.D Thesis: "FOURIER ANALYTICAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE PERFORMANCE OFMULTIPLE - ANNULI CODED APERTURES IN                                                                                      MULTIPLEXED TOMOGRAPHY"

About the Author

Doctorate in Physics. Worked as a Physics Lecturer for 30 years. Presently concentrating on Web content writing.

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